100 Obras Maestras de la Literatura Universal - format ePub

Séneca (4 a.C.-65 d.C.) fue un filósofo, político, orador y escritor romano conocido por sus obras de carácter moral. Hijo del orador Marco Anneo Séneca, fue cuestor, pretor, senador y cónsul sufecto durante los gobiernos de Tiberio, Calígula, Claudio y Nerón, además de tutor y consejero del emperador Nerón. Su papel de tutor durante la infancia de Nerón es representado en la famosa obra de teatro Britannicus de Racine.

Sun Tzu, also known as Sun Wu or Sunzi, was an ancient Chinese military strategist believed to be the author of the acclaimed military text, The Art of War. Details about Sun Tzu’s background and life are uncertain, although he is believed to have lived c. 544-496 BCE. Through The Art of War, Sun Tzu’s theories and strategies have influenced military leaders and campaigns throughout time, including the samurai of ancient and early-modern Japan, and more recently Ho Chi Minh of the Viet Cong and American generals Norman Swarzkopf, Jr. and Colin Powell during the Persian Gulf War in the 1990s.

Ignacio de Loyola (Loyola, c. 23 de octubre de 1491-Roma, 31 de julio de 1556) fue un militar y luego religioso español, surgido como un líder religioso durante la Contrarreforma. Su devoción a la Iglesia católica se caracterizó por la obediencia absoluta al papa.

Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli, ou Nicolau Maquiavel em português, nasceu em Florença em 1469.

A educação do diplomata, filósofo, escritor e historiador renascentista foi fraca, devido aos parcos recursos dos pais, mas integrou o tradicional estudo da Gramática, da Retórica e do Latim.

Ao longo de 14 anos, Maquiavel observou a forma como os políticos pensavam, agiam e reagiam, e testemunhou um dos períodos mais convulsivos tumultuosos da História da península Italiana, dominada por lutas de poder e guerras sangrentas entre cidades-Estado.

Em 1512, com o regresso da família Medici ao poder florentino, Maquiavel é destituído dos seus cargos, acusado de conspiração, aprisionado, torturado e, finalmente, expulso da sua cidade.

Refugiou-se emSan Casciano com a mulher e os filhos e aí escreveu O Príncipe, um tratado de teoria política particularmente inovador para a época. Foi também durante o seu exílio que escreveu Discurso sobre a primeira década de Tito Lívio (1517) e A arte da guerra (1519-1520).

Após um brevíssimo regresso à vida pública, Nicolau Maquiavel, hoje considerado o fundador da filosofia política moderna, morreu na sua cidade-natal a 21 de junho de 1527.

Dante Alighieri was an Italian poet of the Middle Ages, best known for his masterpiece, the epic Divine Comedy, considered to be one of the greatest poetic works in literature.

A native of Florence, Dante was deeply involved in his city-state’s politics and had political, as well as poetic, ambitions. He was exiled from Florence in 1301 for backing the losing faction in a dispute over the pope’s influence, and never saw Florence again.

While in exile, Dante wrote the Comedy, the tale of the poet’s pilgrimage through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. To reach the largest possible audience for the work, Dante devised a version of Italian based largely on his own Tuscan dialect and incorporating Latin and parts of other regional dialects. In so doing, he demonstrated the vernacular’s fitness for artistic expression, and earned the title “Father of the Italian language.”

Dante died in Ravenna in 1321, and his body remains there despite the fact that Florence erected a tomb for him in 1829.

Hans Christian Andersen was a Danish author and poet best remembered for his fairy tales, both original and retold, including the beloved classics "Thumbelina," "The Emperor's New Clothes," "The Fir Tree," "The Steadfast Tin Soldier," "The Princess and the Pea," "The Red Shoes," "The Ugly Duckling," and "The Snow Queen." 

William Shakespeare is the world's greatest ever playwright. Born in 1564, he split his time between Stratford-upon-Avon and London, where he worked as a playwright, poet and actor. In 1582 he married Anne Hathaway. Shakespeare died in 1616 at the age of fifty-two, leaving three children—Susanna, Hamnet and Judith. The rest is silence.

John Milton was a seventeenth-century English poet, polemicist, and civil servant in the government of Oliver Cromwell. Among Milton’s best-known works are the classic epic Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, considered one of the greatest accomplishments in English blank verse, and Samson Agonistes.

Writing during a period of tremendous religious and political change, Milton’s theology and politics were considered radical under King Charles I, found acceptance during the Commonwealth period, and were again out of fashion after the Restoration, when his literary reputation became a subject for debate due to his unrepentant republicanism. T.S. Eliot remarked that Milton’s poetry was the hardest to reflect upon without one’s own political and theological beliefs intruding.

Écrivain et philosophe suisse d'expression française, Jean-Jacques Rousseau est né le 28 juin 1712 à Genève. Il est l'auteur entre autres de "Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes" (1755), "Julie ou la Nouvelle Héloïse" (1761), "Émile ou De l'éducation" (1762), "Du contrat social" (1762), "Les Confessions" (1765-1770) et "Les Rêveries du promeneur solitaire" (1776-1778). Il est mort le 20 mai 1778 à Ermenonville (Oise).

Born in 1667, Jonathan Swift was an Irish writer and cleric, best known for his works Gulliver’s Travels, A Modest Proposal, and A Journal to Stella, amongst many others. Educated at Trinity College in Dublin, Swift received his Doctor of Divinity in February 1702, and eventually became Dean of St. Patrick’s Cathedral in Dublin. Publishing under the names of Lemeul Gulliver, Isaac Bickerstaff, and M. B. Drapier, Swift was a prolific writer who, in addition to his prose works, composed poetry, essays, and political pamphlets for both the Whigs and the Tories, and is considered to be one of the foremost English-language satirists, mastering both the Horatian and Juvenalian styles. Swift died in 1745, leaving the bulk of his fortune to found St. Patrick’s Hospital for Imbeciles, a hospital for the mentally ill, which continues to operate as a psychiatric hospital today.

English author Daniel Defoe was at times a trader, political activist, criminal, spy and writer, and is considered to be one of England’s first journalists. A prolific writer, Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names over the course of a career in which he produced more than five hundred written works. Defoe is best-known for his novels detailing the adventures of the castaway Robinson Crusoe, which helped establish and popularize the novel in eighteenth century England. In addition to Robinson Crusoe, Defoe penned other famous works including Captain Singleton, A Journal of the Plague Year, Captain Jack, Moll Flanders and Roxana. Defoe died in 1731.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) was one of England's greatest writers. Best known for his classic serialized novels, such as Oliver Twist, A Tale of Two Cities, and Great Expectations, Dickens wrote about the London he lived in, the conditions of the poor, and the growing tensions between the classes. He achieved critical and popular international success in his lifetime and was honored with burial in Westminster Abbey.

William Makepeace Thackeray was a nineteenth century English novelist who was most famous for his classic novel, Vanity Fair, a satirical portrait of English society. With an early career as a satirist and parodist, Thackeray shared a fondness for roguish characters that is evident in his early works such as Vanity Fair, The Luck of Barry Lyndon, and Catherine, and was ranked second only to Charles Dickens during the height of his career. In his later work, Thackeray transitioned from the satirical tone for which he was known to a more traditional Victorian narrative, the most notable of which is The History of Henry Esmond. Thackeray died in 1863.

Born in 1775, Jane Austen published four of her six novels anonymously. Her work was not widely read until the late nineteenth century, and her fame grew from then on. Known for her wit and sharp insight into social conventions, her novels about love, relationships, and society are more popular year after year. She has earned a place in history as one of the most cherished writers of English literature.

Charlotte Brontë, born in 1816, was an English novelist and poet, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters, and one of the nineteenth century's greatest novelists. She is the author of Villette, The Professor, several collections of poetry, and Jane Eyre, one of English literature's most beloved classics. She died in 1855.

Emily Brontë (1818-1848) was an English novelist and poet, best remembered for her only novel, Wuthering Heights (1847). A year after publishing this single work of genius, she died at the age of thirty.

Born in Ireland in 1856, Oscar Wilde was a noted essayist, playwright, fairy tale writer and poet, as well as an early leader of the Aesthetic Movement. His plays include: An Ideal Husband, Salome, A Woman of No Importance, and Lady Windermere's Fan. Among his best known stories are The Picture of Dorian Gray and The Canterville Ghost.

Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was born on August 30, 1797, into a life of personal tragedy. In 1816, she married the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, and that summer traveled with him and a host of other Romantic intellectuals to Geneva. Her greatest achievement was piecing together one of the most terrifying and renowned stories of all time: Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus. Shelley said she conceived of Frankenstein in “a waking dream.” This vision was simply of a student kneeling before a corpse brought to life. Yet this tale of a mad creator and his abomination has inspired a multitude of storytellers and artists. She died on February 1, 1851.

Bram Stoker (1847–1912) grew up in Ireland listening to his mother's tales of blood-drinking fairies and vampires rising from their graves. He later managed the Lyceum Theatre in London and worked as a civil servant, newspaper editor, reporter, and theater critic. Dracula, his best-known work, was published in 1897 and is hailed as one of the founding pieces of Gothic literature.

Henry James (1843-1916), the son of the religious philosopher Henry James Sr. and brother of the psychologist and philosopher William James, published many important novels including Daisy Miller, The Wings of the Dove, The Golden Bowl, and The Ambassadors.

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1859. Before starting his writing career, Doyle attended medical school, where he met the professor who would later inspire his most famous creation, Sherlock Holmes. A Study in Scarlet was Doyle's first novel; he would go on to write more than sixty stories featuring Sherlock Holmes. He died in England in 1930.

Wilkie Collins (January 8, 1824-September 23, 1889) was the author of thirty novels, more than sixty short stories, fourteen plays (including an adaptation of The Moonstone), and more than one hundred nonfiction pieces. His best-known works are The Woman in White, The Moonstone, Armadale, and No Name.

Polish author Joseph Conrad is considered to be one of the greatest English-language novelists, a remarkable achievement considering English was not his first language. Conrad’s literary works often featured a nautical setting, reflecting the influences of his early career in the Merchant Navy, and his depictions of the struggles of the human spirit in a cold, indifferent world are best exemplified in such seminal works as Heart of Darkness, Lord JimM, The Secret Agent, Nostromo, and Typhoon. Regarded as a forerunner of modernist literature, Conrad’s writing style and characters have influenced such distinguished writers as F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, William S. Burroughs, Hunter S. Thompson, and George Orwell, among many others. Many of Conrad’s novels have been adapted for film, most notably Heart of Darkness, which served as the inspiration and foundation for Francis Ford Coppola’s 1979 film Apocalypse Now.

Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875-1950) is the creator of Tarzan, one of the most popular fictional characters of all time, and John Carter, hero of the Barsoom science fiction series. Burroughs was a prolific author, writing almost 70 books before his death in 1950, and was one of the first authors to popularize a character across multiple media, as he did with Tarzan’s appearance in comic strips, movies, and merchandise. Residing in Hawaii at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941, Burroughs was drawn into the Second World War and became one of the oldest war correspondents at the time. Edgar Rice Burroughs’s popularity continues to be memorialized through the community of Tarzana, California, which is named after the ranch he owned in the area, and through the Burrough crater on Mars, which was named in his honour.

Born Herbert George Wells in Kent in 1866, H. G. Wells was an outspoken socialist and pacifist, whose works caused some controversy. He is more widely known as a science fiction writer for the novels that he published between 1895 and 1901: The Time Machine, The Island of Doctor Moreau, The Invisible Man, The War of the Worlds, When the Sleeper Wakes and The First Men in the Moon. All, except for When the Sleeper Wakes, have been made into films.

Along with Jules Verne, H. G. Wells is also known as 'the Father of Science Fiction'.

His later novels were more realistic and he wrote many genres, including contemporary novels, history and social commentary.

H. G. Wells died in 1946.

Edgar Allan Poe (1809–49) reigned unrivaled in his mastery of mystery during his lifetime and is now widely held to be a central figure of Romanticism and gothic horror in American literature. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, he was orphaned at age three, was expelled from West Point for gambling, and later became a well-regarded literary critic and editor. "The Raven," published in 1845, made Poe famous. He died in 1849 under what remain mysterious circumstances and is buried in Baltimore, Maryland.

Harriet Beecher Stowe was an American author and abolitionist. Born in Litchfield, Connecticut, she was raised in a deeply religious family and educated in a seminary school run by her elder sister. In her adult life, Stowe married biblical scholar and abolitionist Calvin Ellis Stowe, who would later go on to work as Harriet’s literary agent, and the two participated in the Underground Railroad by providing temporary refuge for escaped slaves travelling to the American North. Shortly before the outbreak of the American Civil War, Stowe published her most famous work, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a stark and sympathetic depiction of the desperate lives of African American slaves. The book went on to see unprecedented sales, and informed American and European attitudes towards abolition. In the years leading up to her death, suffering from dementia or Alzheimer’s disease, Stowe is said to have begun re-writing Uncle Tom’s Cabin, almost word-for-word, believing that she was writing the original manuscript once again. Stowe died in July 1, 1896 at the age of eighty-five.

Mark Twain, who was born Samuel L. Clemens in Missouri in 1835, wrote some of the most enduring works of literature of American fiction, including The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He died in 1910.

Herman Melville (1819–1891) was an American novelist, short story writer, essayist, and poet who received wide acclaim for his earliest novels, such as Typee and Redburn, but fell into relative obscurity by the end of his life. Today, Melville is hailed as one of the definitive masters of world literature for novels including Moby Dick and Billy Budd, as well as for enduringly popular short stories such as Bartleby, the Scrivener and The Bell-Tower.

Jack London (1876-1916) was not only one of the highestpaid and most popular novelists and short-story writers of his day, he was strikingly handsome, full of laughter, and eager for adventure on land or sea. His stories of high adventure and firsthand experiences at sea, in Alaska, and in the fields and factories of California still appeal to millions of people around the world.

Born in 1804, Nathaniel Hawthorne is known for his historical tales and novels about American colonial society. After publishing The Scarlet Letter in 1850, its status as an instant bestseller allowed him to earn a living as a novelist. Full of dark romanticism, psychological complexity, symbolism, and cautionary tales, his work is still popular today. He has earned a place in history as one of the most distinguished American writers of the nineteenth century.

Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) is the author of the beloved Little Women, which was based on her own experiences growing up in New England with her parents and three sisters. More than a century after her death, Louisa May Alcott's stories continue to delight readers of all ages.

J. M. Barrie (1860-1937) was a Scottish playwright and novelist best remembered for creating the character Peter Pan. The mischievous boy first appeared in Barrie's novel The Little White Bird in 1902 and then later in Barrie's most famous work, Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up, which premiered on stage in 1904 and was later adapted into a novel in 1911. An imaginative tale about a boy who can fly and never ages, the story of Peter Pan continues to delight generations around the world and has become one of the most beloved children's stories of all time. Peter's magical adventures with Tinker Bell, the Darling children, and Captain Hook have been adapted into a variety of films, television shows, and musicals.

Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (1832-1898), better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, published Alice's Adventures in Wonderland in 1865 and its sequel, Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There, in 1871. Considered a master of the genre of literary nonsense, he is renowned for his ingenious wordplay and sense of logic, and his highly original vision.

L. Frank Baum (1856-1919) published The Wonderful Wizard of Oz in 1900 and received enormous, immediate success. Baum went on to write seventeen additional novels in the Oz series. Today, he is considered the father of the American fairy tale. His stories inspired the 1939 classic film The Wizard of Oz, one of the most widely viewed movies of all time.

MinaLima is an award-winning graphic design studio founded by Miraphora Mina and Eduardo Lima, renowned for establishing the visual graphic style of the Harry Potter and Fantastic Beasts film series. Specializing in graphic design and illustration, Miraphora and Eduardo have continued their involvement in the Harry Potter franchise through numerous design commissions, from creating all the graphic elements for The Wizarding World of Harry Potter Diagon Alley at Universal Orlando Resort, to designing award-winning publications for the brand. Their best-selling books include Harry Potter and the Philospher’s Stone, Harry Potter Film Wizardry, The Case of Beasts: Explore the Film Wizardry of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, The Archive of Magic: Explore the Film Wizardry of Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald, and J.K. Rowling’s Fantastic Beasts screenplays. MinaLima studio is renowned internationally for telling stories through design and has created its own MinaLima Classics series, reimagining a growing collection of much-loved tales including Peter Pan, The Secret Garden, and Pinocchio.

Born in Paris in 1694, François-Marie Arouet, who would later go by the nom-de-plume Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment philosopher, poet, historian, and author. Voltaire’s writing was often controversial, and in 1715 he was sent into his first exile in Tulle after a writing a satirical piece about the Duke of Orleans, the Regent of France. It was during this time that he produced his first major work, the play Oedipus. Although allowed to return to Paris a year later, Voltaire’s writing continued to land him in trouble. He was jailed in the Bastille two more times and was exiled from Paris for a good portion of his life. Throughout these troubles, Voltaire continued to write, producing works of poetry, a number of plays, and some historical and political texts. His most famous work is the satirical novel Candide, and many of his plays, including Oedipus and Socrates, are still performed today. Voltaire died in 1778.

The best-known of the French Romantic writers, Victor Hugo was a poet, novelist, dramatist, and political critic. Hugo was an avid supporter of French republicanism and advocate for social and political equality, themes that reflect most strongly in his works Les Misérables, Notre-Dame de Paris (The Hunchback of Notre-Dame), and Le Dernier jour d'un condamné (The Last Day of a Condemned Man). Hugo’s literary works were successful from the outset, earning him a pension from Louis XVIII and membership in the prestigious Académie française, and influencing the work of literary figures such as Albert Camus, Charles Dickens, and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Elevated to the peerage by King Louis-Philippe, Hugo played an active role in French politics through the 1848 Revolution and into the Second and Third Republics. Hugo died in 1885, revered not only for his influence on French literature, but also for his role in shaping French democracy. He is buried in the Panthéon alongside Alexandre Dumas and Émile Zola.

Julio Verne (Nantes, 1828 - Amiens, 1905). Nuestro autor manifestó desde niño su pasión por los viajes y la aventura: se dice que ya a los 11 años intentó embarcarse rumbo a las Indias solo porque quería comprar un collar para su prima. Y lo cierto es que se dedicó a la literatura desde muy pronto. Sus obras, muchas de las cuales se publicaban por entregas en los periódicos, alcanzaron éxito ense­guida y su popularidad le permitió hacer de su pa­sión, su profesión. Sus títulos más famosos son Viaje al centro de la Tierra (1865), Veinte mil leguas de viaje submarino (1869), La vuelta al mundo en ochenta días (1873) y Viajes extraordinarios (1863-1905). Gracias a personajes como el Capitán Nemo y vehículos futuristas como el submarino Nautilus, también ha sido considerado uno de los padres de la ciencia fic­ción. Verne viajó por los mares del Norte, el Medi­terráneo y las islas del Atlántico, lo que le permitió visitar la mayor parte de los lugares que describían sus libros. Hoy es el segundo autor más traducido del mundo y fue condecorado con la Legión de Honor por sus aportaciones a la educación y a la ciencia.

Emilio Salgari (Verona, 1862-Turín, 1911) empezó a publicar novelas por entregas a los veinte años. Se casó con Ida Peruzzi y poco después se instaló en Turín, donde se dedicó plenamente a la escritura. En 1897 el rey Humberto I le otorgó el título honorífico de Caballero de la Corona de Italia. En 1900 se publicó en formato libro Los tigres de Mompracem, bajo el sello Donath Editore, que le dio un estipendio anual de tres mil liras con el encargo de escribir tres novelas al año. Además, Salgari escribía otras obras con seudónimo para otras editoriales. Los problemas psiquiátricos de su mujer, que ya se habían manifestado hacía tiempo, se agravaron en 1910, año en que Salgari intentó suicidarse por primera vez. Al siguiente, pocos días después de que su esposa hubiera salido del manicomio, Salgari se quitó la vida. Había publicado más de ochenta obras.

Friedrich Nietzsche was a German philosopher and author. Born into a line of Protestant churchman, Nietzsche studied Classical literature and language before becoming a professor at the University of Basel in Switzerland. He became a philosopher after reading Schopenhauer, who suggested that God does not exist, and that life is filled with pain and suffering. Nietzsche’s first work of prominence was The Birth of Tragedy in 1872, which contained new theories regarding the origins of classical Greek culture. From 1883 to 1885 Nietzsche composed his most famous work, Thus Spake Zarathustra, in which he famously proclaimed that “God is dead.” He went on to release several more notable works including Beyond Good and Evil and The Genealogy of Morals, both of which dealt with the origins of moral values. Nietzsche suffered a nervous breakdown in 1889 and passed away in 1900, but not before giving us his most famous quote, “From life's school of war: what does not kill me makes me stronger.”

Franz Kafka was born to Jewish parents in Bohemia in 1883. Kafka’s father was a luxury goods retailer who worked long hours and as a result never became close with his son. Kafka’s relationship with his father greatly influenced his later writing and directly informed his Brief an den Vater (Letter to His Father). Kafka had a thorough education and was fluent in both German and Czech. As a young man, he was hired to work at an insurance company where he was quickly promoted despite his desire to devote his time to writing rather than insurance. Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote a great number of stories, letters, and essays, but burned the majority of his work before his death and requested that his friend Max Brod burn the rest. Brod, however, did not fulfill this request and published many of the works in the years following Kafka’s death of tuberculosis in 1924. Thus, most of Kafka’s works were published posthumously, and he did not live to see them recognized as some of the most important examples of literature of the twentieth century. Kafka’s works are considered among the most significant pieces of existentialist writing, and he is remembered for his poignant depictions of internal conflicts with alienation and oppression. Some of Kafka’s most famous works include The Metamorphosis, The Trial and The Castle.

Nikolai Gogol was a Russian novelist and playwright born in what is now considered part of the modern Ukraine. By the time he was 15, Gogol worked as an amateur writer for both Russian and Ukrainian scripts, and then turned his attention and talent to prose. His short-story collections were immediately successful and his first novel, The Government Inspector, was well-received. Gogol went on to publish numerous acclaimed works, including Dead Souls, The Portrait, Marriage, and a revision of Taras Bulba. He died in 1852 while working on the second part of Dead Souls.

Pedro Calderón de la Barca (Madrid, 1600-1681) es uno de los más importantes autores teatrales de la literatura europea. En 1625 se alistó bajo las banderas del duque de Alba, y estuvo en Flandes e Italia. En el primer lugar debió de serle grata la estancia, pues muchísimos son los personajes flamencos de sus dramas; o acaso porque la nobleza de su madre, doña María Ana Henao, era de origen flamenco. Sin embargo, posiblemente sus campañas no le dieron mucha gloria, pues no se le cita en parte alguna. En cambio, su vida de letras fue brillante. Cursó estudios de matemáticas y filosofía, y a los trece años estrenó su primera comedia, El Carro del Cielo. Escribió numerosísimas piezas y se trata del autor de teatro español que ha creado obras de más trascendencia y mayor alcance. No por nada fue el dramaturgo favorito de Felipe IV, quien le hizo Caballero de Santiago. Por otra parte, sus sonetos con tendencia filosófica, pero muy poéticos, son harto famosos, y reflejan algunos de los conflictos que Calderón ya hizo aflorar en su obra dramática. Célebres son sus obras teatrales y autos sacramentales, como La vida es sueño, El gran teatro del mundo, El alcalde de Zalamea o El médico de su honra, todas ellas clásicos indispensables en la historia de nuestra literatura. Enrique Rull es profesor titular de literatura española en la Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED). Buena parte de su labor investigadora está dedicada a la literatura del Siglo de Oro, labor que ha cristalizado en numerosos estudios en torno a las figuras de Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina, José de Valdivieleso y, sobre todo, Calderón de la Barca. De este último ha descubierto textos inéditos y perdidos, ha editado varias de sus obras, y ha publicado varios estudios y trabajos bibliográficos sobre sus comedias, autos sacramentales y entremeses.

Baltasar Gracián (1601-1658) se inició en el estudio de las letras europeas a muy temprana edad. Fascinado por materias de ética y teología, ingresó en el noviciado en 1619 para ordenarse sacerdote ocho años después. De ahí en adelante, consagró su vida a la docencia de humanidades y filosofía en distintas instituciones y a la predicación, así como a la redacción de los textos que le procuraron un lugar destacado entre los autores del Siglo de Oro. Sin embargo, estos le reportaron también desavenencias y conflictos con los miembros de su orden, que señalaban con dedo acusador el contenido escasamente doctrinal de sus obras, abordadas desde una perspectiva profana. De este modo, Gracián publicó bajo seudónimo obras tales como El Héroe (1637), El Político (1640), Arte de ingenio, tratado de la agudeza (1642, 1648), El discreto (1646), Oráculo manual y arte de prudencia (1647) y El Criticón (1651, 1653, 1657), cuya tercera parte determinó la caída en desgracia del autor, condenado a penitencia hasta su muerte. Su producción, sin embargo, ha influido notablemente a autores europeos posteriores de la talla de François de La Rochefoucauld y Arthur Schopenhauer.

Juan Valera y Alcalá-Galiano (nacido en Cabra, Córdoba, en 1824) fue un escritor y crítico español. Su obra, circunscrita a un estilo bello y, sobretodo, embellecedor, se contrapone a las del naturalismo francés tan en boga en su tiempo y representados en nuestros país de la mano de Emilia Pardo Bazán o Benito Pérez Galdós. Valera creía, por encima de todo, que la novela debía ser realista en tanto que debía rehuír la fantasía y el sentimentalismo, y, sin embargo, también había de evitar todo lo crudo y penoso de la realidad. El suyo, se ha dicho, es un realismo idealista, ameno y amable, pero no exento de gran calidad. Convencido de sus ideas estéticas, la misma actividad política y diplomática de Valera, siempre con un talante refinado y elegante, hedonista a todas luces, se refleja también en su producción literaria. Algunas de sus obras han llegado a saltar a otros ámbitos culturales. Es el caso de Juanita la Larga, convertida en serie de televisión en 1982, y, sobretodo, de Pepita Jiménez, adaptada a la ópera por Isaac Albéniz. Asimismo, cabe destacar de su trayectoria sus cuentos, ensayos y traducciones de escritores de la talla de Byron o Goethe. Murió en Madrid el 18 de abril de 1905.

Spanish realist (1852-1901) best known for the novel _La regenta_. Alas is also known as Clarín.

Jorge Ricardo Isaacs Ferrer nació en Santiago de Cali, el 1 de abril de 1837 y murió en Ibagué, el 17 de abril de 1895. Novelista, escritor y poeta colombiano del género romántico. Jorge Se sabe poco de su infancia. amaica.
En 1854, luchó en las campañas de Cauca contra la dictadura del general José María Melo, por 7 meses. Su familia atravesó por una difícil situación económica a causa de la guerra civil.
En 1856 se casó con Felisa González Umaña, quien contaba por entonces diecinueve años, y que le daría abundante descendencia y perseverancia para que se escudara de ellos.
En 1860 tomó de nuevo las armas para combatir al general Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera, que se había levantado contra el gobierno central, y combatió en la batalla de Manizales.
En 1861 murió su padre; terminada la guerra, Isaacs regresó a Cali para encargarse de los negocios paternos, llenos de deudas. Tuvo que desprenderse de las haciendas "La Rita" y "La Manuelita". Sus desventuras económicas le llevaron en busca de abogados a Bogotá, donde encontró eco su actividad literaria. Leyó sus poemas a los miembros de la tertulia "El Mosaico", quienes decidieron costear su publicación (Poesías, 1864).
En 1864 supervisó los trabajos del camino de herradura entre Buenaventura y Cali. Durante el año en que desempeñó este trabajo, comenzó a escribir su novela María. En esta época, así mismo, debido a lo insalubre del clima, contrajo paludismo, enfermedad que lo conduciría a su deceso a los 58 años de edad.
Militó al principio en el Partido Conservador, pero después adhirió al liberalismo radical y, en 1870, fue nombrado cónsul general en Chile. A su regreso, intervino activamente en la política de Cauca, tanto como editor de periódicos como representando a su departamento en la Cámara de Representantes. Intervino de nuevo en las luchas políticas de 1876, en las que tomó de nuevo las armas. Fue expulsado de la Cámara de Representantes en 1879, a raíz de un incidente en que Isaacs, ante una sublevación conservadora, se proclamó jefe político y militar de Antioquia.
Tras este incidente, se retiró de la política, y publicó, en 1881, el primer canto de un extenso poema que no llegó a concluir, titulado Saulo. Nombrado secretario de la Comisión Científica, exploró el departamento de Magdalena, en el norte de Colombia, hallando importantes yacimientos de carbón, petróleo Los últimos años de su vida los pasó retirado en Ibagué (donde había dejado alojada su familia añ...

Horacio Quiroga (Salto, Uruguay, 1878 - Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1937) ha sido definido como el gran cuentista latinoamericano de la primera mitad del siglo XX. Profundamente influenciado por Edgar Allan Poe, publicó una decena de libros de relatos y dos novelas.

Born in 1828, Henrik Ibsen was a Norwegian playwright and poet, often associated with the early Modernist movement in theatre. Determined to become a playwright from a young age, Ibsen began writing while working as an apprentice pharmacist to help support his family. Though his early plays were largely unsuccessful, Ibsen was able to take employment at a theatre where he worked as a writer, director, and producer. Ibsen’s first success came with Brand and Peter Gynt, and with later plays like A Doll’s House, Ghosts, and The Master Builder he became one of the most performed playwrights in the world, second only to William Shakespeare. Ibsen died in his home in Norway in 1906 at the age of 78.